Akhil Surapaneni

Uganda Loewenstern ISP

History¹

The Luo left South Sudan in the 15th century and came to Uganda. They split into three kingdoms, each ruled by their own king (kabaka). Their arrival also coincided with the emergence of several other kingdoms in Uganda. The Busoga kingdom occupied the area that contains modern-day Jinja.

The British colonized Uganda around 1860, placing the East Africa Trading Company in charge. During British rule, Baganda, the largest former kingdom in Uganda, offered to be administrators of the colonized kingdoms. As they went from kingdom to kingdom, they insisted that the locals speak Luganda (Baganda language), eat bananas, and wear kanzus (long gowns of the Bagandan kingdom). To pay for the creation of a Ugandan railroad from Lake Victoria to the coast, the British insisted Ugandans cultivate cash crops like cotton. Cotton sales made the lakeside Bagandan kingdom very wealthy compared to the rest of Uganda, which only further spread Bagandan culture.

In 1949, the Bagandan people rioted to gain control of the cotton enterprise. The Indian independence and the West African nationalist movements primed British colonialists to accept the inevitable independence of Uganda. They removed restrictions on the cotton trade and even encouraged the formation of a Ugandan trade alliance. In 1961, they organized a formal election for a Congress that will assume power in Uganda. Benedicto Kiwanuka was elected as the first chief minister of Uganda. But, the UPC party partnered with the Buganda to gain control in 1962 and they established the kabaka as the symbolic head of the government, with Obote as the first prime minister. In 1966, Obote suspended the Constitution and declared himself Executive President, which was met with resistance from Baganda. Obote was overthrown by Major-General Amin in 1971. Within several years, he had killed 300,00 of his own civilians. In response, a coalition of 18 Ugandan groups formed the Uganda National Liberation front and seized control of the regime. President Binaisa was elected in 1979 to restore stability, but he was replaced by a military coup, which reinstated Obote in 1980. However, the National Resistance Army formed in resistance to Obote and overthrew him in 1986. Yoweri Museveni was established as the President. The new government took several years to stabilize and rewrote the Constitution in 1995.

Culture of Uganda

Due to British rule and Bugandan majority influence, English and Luganda are the most commonly spoken languages.

There are several customs that revolve around eating. For example, it is impolite to leave before others have finished eating. Additionally, leaning on the left hand or stretching legs while eating is considered rude.

The main religions are Catholicism, Protestantism, Islam, and local religions. However, Jinja, Uganda has one of the largest Indian and Hindu populations in the continent².

Under the new Constitution, the President is the head of the state, the government and the military. Parliament is in charge of the legislation. While the current president has made strides towards improving the human rights abuses by the army and police, he hasn’t been able to curb the Lord’s Resistance Army. They have spread terror throughout Uganda and surrounding countries.

Primary education begins at age six and secondary education begins at age thirteen. Since 1997, up to four Ugandan children per family can attend primary school for free. Due to the large number of schools established by the Christian missionaries, private school is a very popular option for secondary education. The first university in Uganda was Makerere University in Kampala, which was established in 1922. Since then, many universities have opened up all around Uganda³.

Culture of the Busoga region⁴

Due to the Uganda’s history as a land divided amongst kingdoms, modern-day Uganda is culturally separate as well. Jinja is located in the Busoga region. While the most common language in Uganda is Luganda and the national language is English, Lusoga is the most common language in the Busoga region. Traditionally, Busoga people used to remove the sixth tooth in the lower jaw. The land in the region was traditionally divided amongst the clans; even now, non-clan members who are cultivating on clan land are considered to be tenants. The traditional burial rituals varied widely depending on the social status of the deceased. For high people with high social ranking for example, no cooking was allowed on the day of death. However, as Mrs. Lwigale explains, globalization has increased American influence in Ugandan culture as a whole. Children want to listen to Kesha and dress like Americans of their age.

Context and Overview of Research Project

For centuries, Uganda has been implementing small-scale irrigation technologies in farms. Most farms are located close to swamps and lakes and they have relied on rainfall to water their crops. However, as the climate is changing, this has not proven to be a sustainable solution. Uganda has suffered eight serious droughts in the last 40 years⁵. Rainy seasons have been occurring up to one month earlier or later than usual. Farmers are having trouble planting their crops at the right time and the fluctuating climate is reducing crop yields.

My research mentor, Ms. Kibuuka, explained that rural farmers near Jinja have not developed irrigation technologies because they have been getting water from swamps. However, the swamps have dried up recently, which has caused food insecurity throughout the region. 40% of the overall death amongst Ugandan children is caused by malnutrition. Additionally, lack of irrigation hurts the livelihood of Ugandan people because 80% of people in Uganda depend on agriculture.

My role at Busoga Trust is to investigate low-cost Water for Production technologies, make a recommendation and plan for implementing in rural communities in Uganda. According to the Ugandan Ministry of Water and Environment, Water for Production refers to the utilization of water for “crop irrigation, livestock, aquaculture, rural industries and other commercial uses”. To accomplish this, I will first begin with a literature review to identify appropriate low-cost technologies. Throughout this project, I will visit rural communities to assess community needs. I will conduct individual interviews and lead group discussions to obtain information. Throughout this process, I will strive to use participatory research methods because it is critical for community members to own their project. According to my research mentor, we will be trying to ask questions in the fields of engineering, socioeconomics, and social dynamics. In addition to researching possible technologies, I will have to assess the feasibility of these technologies. I will have to consider cultural traditions, governmental policies and regulations regarding water and farming, as well as the economic resources of rural farmers when making my recommendation.

Additionally, I will compare different ways for Busoga Trust to be involved in implementing this technology. Possible examples are selling, renting, or micro financing to enable local partners to construct the chosen irrigation technologies.

Breaking News

Article 1:Volcanic Minerals, Not Worms, Caused Disease Outbreak in Uganda⁶

Medical professionals in Uganda recently discovered an outbreak of swollen feet in the country. They had previously attributed it to a rare tropical disease called elephantitis. Elephantitis is commonly caused by worms, which spread to humans by mosquito bites. The disease causes swollen limbs in affected individuals. However, the according to a report in the American Journal of Tropical Medicine, blood tests for worms came back negative. Experts now think that these patients are affected with podoconiosis, which is a disease caused by walking barefoot on volcanic soil. Researchers believe that farmers in the Kamwenge area unearthed volcanic soil when they were tilling the land. 67% of the farmers interviewed stated that they didn’t own shoes. Epidemiologists believe that the some farmers had the disease for up to 30 days.

This article caught my attention because it contained many different aspects that my research touches upon. This article reminds me that health issues aren’t just confined to the iodoform odor of hospital walls. Every aspect of our life influences our health. For the case of the Kamwenge farmers, this is just another example of how poverty is the most persistent disease; podoconiosis is just another symptom. The farmers walked on volcanic soil because they simply didn’t own shoes. Even though my research is on water irrigation, it is definitely a health issue. People need water for sanitation and food to survive. Additionally, this article reminds me that the issues that Uganda face can be very different than the ones in America. I have never heard of elephantitis or podoconiosis in the U.S. Tropical diseases are not a problem over here. However, they are very critical problems in Uganda. Over half of the population in Uganda is at risk of contracting a neglected tropical disease (NTD)⁷

On a broad level, this reminds me that when coming up with a recommendation for an irrigation technology, I need to think from first principles instead of reasoning by analogy. I cannot choose a technology for Uganda just because it works in America. Solutions that work in Uganda must be tailored to the context of the country.

Article 2: Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni seeks to extend 30-year rule over country⁸

Current President of Uganda, Yoweri Museveni, recently announced that he seeks to run for another five-year term. Mr. Museveni, who has been the President of Uganda since 1986, seeks to extend his 30-year rule. However, according to the article, this campaign may be his most vulnerable one yet. Many young Ugandans cite the lack of progress on health and education issues as their reason for not voting him. Citizens from northern Uganda talk about government abandonment following the civil war with the Lord’s Resistance Army. His critics say that since 2005, when he abolished the limit on presidential terms, his rule has gotten more authoritative. Museveni has been accused of suppressing the press and controlling media outlets that speak directly to his rural support base. Since this article was released, Museveni was elected shortly afterwards. The President shut down social media and had his main opponent arrested four times during election week.

This article shows the effect of tumultuous political history on a country’s current political stability. People don’t forget injustices that have occurred in the past. The government has committed human rights abuses in the past and northern Ugandan citizens claim the government has neglected them. However, the fact that Museveni is only now experiencing threats to his reign suggests that times are changing. The effects of globalization can be seen in Ugandan youth are reacting to the current administration. Western ideals of democracy have influenced them and they are also expecting more from their government because they have seen anti-government protests across the world. The overbearing way in which Museveni won suggests that dialogue within his government is discouraged. This does not give me hope for the quality and comprehensiveness of his future policies, especially those related to irrigation.

Article 3:Most New York City Schools Had High Lead Levels, Retests Find⁹

Last year, after the discovery of lead in the water supply for Flint, Michigan, New York city officials said that they tested the water in public schools and found that only 1 percent of outlets had dangerous levels. However, after experts questioned the validity of the study because officials flushed out the outlets the night before, NYC repeated the study. They found that 8% of outlets had levels above the EPA’s action level (15 ppb) and 83% of New York schools had at least one outlet above this level. The city says that it has turned off every outlet above the threshold.

This article illustrates that even in the symbolic center of the First World, water and sanitation problems exist. Companies and people who may not have been following proper safety procedures in order to save a few pennies introduced the lead into those waters. The lead persisted in the water because regulatory agencies failed to consistently follow procedure. These are two common human fallacies which plague both developed and developing countries. While developed countries may have more regulation, it is not always followed. Bureaucracy leads to lack of accountability. The same problem plagues gravity irrigation systems in Uganda. The farmers who use the reservoir communally own it, but nobody steps up to maintain it. The article shows me that the sustainable solution towards fixing sanitation and water problems is to alter the mindset of the people in charge in conjunction with a tech/policy change.

Article 4: Agency: California farmers will get bump in irrigation water¹⁰

California farmers will receive less than their full supply of irrigation water this summer because record snow and rain have ended the five-year long drought in the state. In recent drought years, farmers have resorted to buying water at an expensive price. At the peak of the drought, farmers left many of their land unplanted and used that water on other crops. Even though farmers thought they were out of the drought, this news left them without adequate water for the summer again.

For me, this article strikes home because I am from California. We were urged to take two-minute showers. We were told that the city might cut off supply to our sprinklers. Reading this article was personally frustrating to me because I have personally seen the effect of the drought on people. The California drought may not have been the worst drought, but it was the only one that I had seen. Even after enduring this drought, cutting off irrigation supply will leave California farmers in the same situation as before. Even though the U.S has a water irrigation network, the supply is in the control of people. They may not choose to allocate it efficiently or deliver it to the places with the most need. While I can design a great irrigation system, I must also consider methods to distribute the water in an equitable manner.

Policy Analysis

According to my research mentor, villages in Uganda obtain water through boreholes in the ground. In order to get a borehole, the village must fill out an application and make a committee to build and maintain it. The first digs a hole in the ground and builds a vertical shaft and a well screen to maintain the integrity of the hole. Then, they can pump water out of the hole. Gravity irrigation is the most common form of irrigation in sub-Saharan African countries. A group of farmers share the resources of a large water reservoir by routing pipes from the reservoir to the farm. However, to manage irrigation facilities, there has to be a policy to maintain the channels and drainage. Absence of such regulatory policies has proven to be an important reason for the failure of large-scale irrigation projects. Studies have found that small size villages which are social homogeneous by caste or ethnic group are effective in maintaining reservoirs. The close ties among villages allow farmers to supervise each other by social sanctions and peer interaction¹¹.

The water sector is one of the main priorities of the Poverty Eradication Action Plan, which was enacted in 1997. The goal for Uganda is to achieve 100% water coverage in urban areas and 77% safe water coverage in rural areas. Uganda enacted a Water Action Plan in 1993 to address this priority. In accordance with the plan, the government has passed the Water Statute, The National Water and Sewerage Corporation Statute, the Local Government Act, and the National Water Policy between 1995 and 1999. Financing for the water sector has increased in the past 15 years, though donor funding is still the largest source.

One of the key strategies to addressing the water needs in Uganda is the Sector Wide Approach to Planning. Under this approach, government and stakeholders agree on a strategy to improve sector performance and use money more effectively through programs. The key is that all stakeholders participate in the planning and implementation of water programs. Water for Production is a key priority in the Water Action Plan. To accomplish this, government is promoting small to large-scale irrigation, water harvesting for irrigation, soil and water conservation, and swamp development and utilization. According to a study by the Food and Agricultural Organization, the total irrigable area in Uganda is 202,000 ha and only ~14,000 is under formal irrigation and 67,000 ha under information irrigation. Already the government has incorporated methods of water harvesting to supply water to farms. Such measures include collecting runoff from rooftops into storage structures, confining surface runoff onto reservoir, deep tilling of crops to prevent runoff, and creating percolation furrows.

On a large-scale level, the government has built valleys and dams to be used as large-scale reservoirs and small-scale irrigation. On a small-scale level, rooftop collection and river diversion have been successfully implemented. To supply water for livestock, there is an existing effort to build at least one dam or valley tank in each of the cattle corridors. According to the 2006 UN Water Development Program, Uganda is lacking the technological capability to effectively utilize the vast water resources in the country. Furthermore, the absence of financing systems for local farmers and local industries prevents effective implementation of water for production technologies. Additionally, even though it is outside the scope of my project, the report recommends that the government invest in agricultural marketing in order to maximize the impact of Water for Production technologies.12

Rice/Houston Faculty Connection

When I first started preparing for the summer, I had planned on contacting Dr. Peter Lwigale, a faculty member in the Biosciences Department. However, I was able to meet with Mrs. Mary Lwigale, who was born and raised in Uganda. She spoke from her personal experience about the culture. She also brought her 13-year-old daughter, so we were able to get a young person’s perspective on Ugandan culture. According to Mrs. Lwigale, there are over 80 tribes in Uganda. In the past, it was the norm for people to marry within their tribe, but now that practice has been abandoned. The traditional clothing for men and women is a long robe or gown called kanzu or gomesi, respectively. However, professional clothing, like a shirt, suit, and tie, are very common because of the British influence in Uganda. Mrs. Lwigale’s daughter added that young Ugandans aim to dress like Americans.

In regards to greetings, Mrs. Lwigale mentioned Ugandan men hug each other and Ugandan women hug each other, but usually men and women don’t hug each other. In fact, Ugandan women usually don’t even look at men in the eye when they talk. Mrs. Lwigale mentioned that Uganda had a socially conservative culture. Women’s menstrual health is not usually discussed and talking about sexuality is taboo.
I was not entirely surprised by Mrs. Lwigale’s description of Ugandan customs. Traditional Ugandan clothing is very similar to traditional Indian clothing, especially the kurta worn by men and women. Indian teenagers are also infatuated with American culture, but British-influenced professional culture is very prominent in the country. In India as well, social interactions between single men and women are very limited. South India, at least, is also socially conservative. I was very surprised, however, to learn that Ugandan women do not look at men in the eye when they talk to him. I understand that around the world, women do not have equal social status as men. However, it was eye opening to hear how Ugandan women have internalized this double standard and how it has affected even biological and instinctual behaviors like looking at a person in the eye during conversation. The conversation that I had with Mrs. Lwigale gave me a lens by which to view Ugandan culture. Additionally, I realized that I can’t anticipate these cultural rules and norms, so I should have an open mind and accept them with an open mind.

Reflection

When I was a child, I remember taking showers out of a bucket full of water. My grandmother used to heat the water on stove because we didn’t have hot water running in the house. In the villages near my house in India, I would see housewives carry all of their weekly laundry down to the local river and wash their clothes because they didn’t have any running water at home. Fast-forward to a few months ago and the water pipe supplying my off campus house burst. For a few days until they fixed the pipe, I had to walk 5 minutes to use the shower at the Rec and I was grumbling the whole time. After the incident was over, I was struck at how easily I took the privilege of having running water as a right. Even though I had seen the distances that people walk to get water, I couldn’t believe that I was grumbling about a 5-minute walk to the Rec. I chose water irrigation as my issue to research because I had seen how lack of water access affected people in India.
In countries like Uganda, access to water is being threatened by climate change. I was initially interested in Uganda because I had never been to country in Africa. I was ignorant on their perspectives and travel is the antidote to ignorance. However, by researching more about Uganda, I am realizing that my project has a particular impact in this country. According to UN report, Uganda has all the resources to fix their water problems. But due to lack of technological development and financing systems this problem remains unsolved. My project aims to tackle this problem along these critical axes. Additionally, since about 80% of the Ugandan population works in agriculture, my project has the potential to impact a lot of people.

Water has tangible impact on issues of health, economics, politics, education, food, etc. Beyond investigating irrigation to develop water for production technologies, I would like to look at the impact of lack of water on health. Diseases like typhoid emerge because of unsanitary conditions. Busoga Trust does a lot of work surrounding sanitation and I would like to tie my project to this issue as well.

References

1. "Uganda -- History." East Africa Living Encyclopedia.Web. 02 May 2017.
2. Hebbar, Nistula. "By the Nile, a Nest of Indians." The Hindu, 24 Feb. 2017. Web. 02 May 2017.
3. Lyons, Maryinez, and M. Semakula M. Kiwanuka. "Uganda." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 12 Apr. 2017. Web. 02 May 2017.
4. "THE BASOGA." Uganda Travel Guide. Web. 02 May 2017.
5. Kavuma, Richard M. "Uganda Draws up National Irrigation Strategy." The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 25 Jan. 2010. Web. 02 May 2017.
6. Mcneil, Donald G. "Volcanic Minerals, Not Worms, Caused Disease Outbreak in Uganda." The New York Times. The New York Times, 10 Apr. 2017. Web. 02 May 2017.
7. Nakibuuka, Beatrice. "Uganda: Half of Ugandans At Risk of Contracting Tropical Diseases." The Monitor. AllAfrica, 10 Aug. 2015. Web. 2 May 2017.
8. Catrina Stewart Lukodi, Uganda. "Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni Seeks to Extend 30-year Rule over Country." The Independent. Independent Digital News and Media, 13 Feb. 2016. Web. 02 May 2017.
9. Taylor, Kate. "Most New York City Schools Had High Lead Levels, Retests Find." The New York Times. The New York Times, 28 Apr. 2017. Web. 02 May 2017.
10. Taylor, Kate. "Most New York City Schools Had High Lead Levels, Retests Find." The New York Times. The New York Times, 28 Apr. 2017. Web. 02 May 2017.
11. Nakano, Yuko, and Keijiro Otsuka. Determinants of Household Contributions to Collective Irrigation Management: A Case of the Doho Rice Scheme in Uganda. Publication. Print.
12. National Water Development Report: Uganda. Rep.World Water Assessment Programme, Print.